對許多南非農村居民來說，被他人剝奪土地仍是件無比慘痛的現實。時至今日，許多生活在傳統領袖下的農村居民都因礦業目的而遭他人剝奪土地。本項研究考察了國家、礦業資本和傳統領袖間的密切關係——或稱為剝奪農村土地三角——是如何促使南非種族隔離後的農村居民土地流失。本研究作者認為，源自殖民種族隔離時期的土地剝奪“原罪”，是在國家、跨國礦業公司和傳統領袖的相互勾結下得以連續至今。雖然殖民種族隔離時期的土地剝奪是出於種族主義動機，然而今日剝奪農村土地的動機是新自由主義主導的發展。儘管兩者的背景時空不盡相同，但其結果仍然是創造出難以維持自身生計的無地者。

本論文采用馬克思主義的政治經濟學視角，以展示剝奪性積累是如何在南非後種族隔離時期得以重塑形象。本論文以數個南非農村土地被剝奪的案例，揭示“發展”如何發揮成為南非後種族隔離與新自由主義時期的新土地剝奪面貌。除此之外，本論文點出法律在促使土地剝奪的作用，質問儘管南非憲法被譽為是世上最強大的憲法之一，為何在保護農村居民免遭土地剝奪時卻是不盡人意的。最後，本論文也涵蓋土地被剝奪的農村社群，可以如何在反對鬥爭中擴大其聲浪。本研究作者基於上述情形，也在論文中納入處理相似挑戰的政治生態學與環境正義等理論與概念。雖然這課題的前進道路看似需從環境保護、民主和經濟增長間取得適當平衡。然而，這些概念的真正義含可能需要重新定義。

Land dispossession remains a painful reality for many of South Africa's rural citizens. Today, many people living in rural areas under traditional leaders are dispossessed of their land for mining purposes. This thesis examines how the close relationship between the state, mining capital, and traditional leaders—an assemblage referred to as the triad of rural land dispossession—facilitates the loss of land among rural citizens in post-apartheid South Africa. The thesis argues that the collaboration between the state, multinational mining companies and traditional leaders has perpetuated the "original sin" of land dispossession initiated during the colonial-apartheid era. While land dispossession during the colonial-apartheid period was motivated by racialism, rural land dispossession today is inspired by neoliberal-led development. The result, however, is the same—the creation of a landless people with few other options for maintaining their livelihoods.
This thesis adopts a Marxian perspective of the political economy to show how dispossessory capital accumulation rebranded itself in the post-apartheid dispensation. Using several case studies of rural land dispossession in South Africa, the thesis exposes how 'development' functions as the new face of land loss in post-apartheid and neoliberal South Africa. The thesis also considers the role of law as an actor in facilitating land dispossession. Celebrated as one of the world's strongest constitutions, the thesis asks how the South African Constitution falls short in protecting rural citizens from land dispossession. Finally, the thesis considers how dispossessed rural communities in South Africa can magnify their voices in the struggle against land dispossession. The thesis thus ventures beyond political economy to borrow theories and concepts from disciplines such as political ecology and environmental justice studies which deal with similar challenges. The way forward seems to be one that strikes the right balance between environmental protection, democracy, and economic growth. However, the very meaning of these concepts might have to be redefined.

Abstract .............................................................................................................................. i
Acknowledgement ............................................................................................................. iv
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... v
List of Abbreviations and Figures ................................................................................... vii
Chapter 1 ................................................................................................................................ 1
Introduction............................................................................................................................ 1
1. Background................................................................................................................... 4
1.1 Rationale ............................................................................................................... 4
1.2 Traditional Leadership in Democratic South Africa .................................................. 6
1.3. Land Disputes in Recent Years ................................................................................ 9
2. Research Objectives .................................................................................................... 12
3. Theoretical Framework and Conceptual Definitions ..................................................... 13
3.1 Primitive Accumulation .........................................................................................15
3.2. Accumulation by Dispossession .............................................................................16
4. Research Questions and Methodology.......................................................................... 17
5. Thesis Outline ............................................................................................................. 21
Chapter 2 ...............................................................................................................................22
Historical Perspective: From Pre-Colonial to Post-Colonial .....................................................22
1. Land, Governance and Natural Resources in Pre-Colonial Africa .................................. 22
2. The Colonial Era: 1652 – 1994 .................................................................................... 24
3. Post-Colonial South Africa: The Age of Neoliberalism ................................................. 29
Chapter 3 ...............................................................................................................................35
The Neoliberalization of Nature .............................................................................................35
1. The Age of Developmental Extractivism ...................................................................... 37
1.1. Understanding the Resource Curse ........................................................................37
1.2. Extractivism in Africa .............................................................................................39
1.3. Extractivism through the Spatial Fix .......................................................................42
2. Uneven Geographical Development ............................................................................. 43
Chapter 4 ...............................................................................................................................48
The Environmentalism of the Poor and Landless ....................................................................48
1. Cases of Dispossession and Resistance......................................................................... 50
vi
1.1. A case of Resistance against Mining in Makhaseni ..................................................51
1.2. A case of Dispossession by Mining in Mokopane ....................................................54
2. Extra-Constitutional Power.......................................................................................... 57
Chapter 5 ...............................................................................................................................61
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................61
Bibliography ..........................................................................................................................66

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